Nehru, Jawaharlal (1889-1964), Indian nationalist
leader and statesman who was the first prime minister
of independent India (1947-1964) and a leader
of the nonaligned nations during the Cold War.
Nehru was born in Allahâbâd,
the son of Motilal Nehru, a wealthy Brahman lawyer
whose family had originally come from Kashmîr,
and Swarup Rani Nehru. After private tutoring,
Nehru went to Britain with his family. When his
family left in 1905, Nehru stayed to attend the
Harrow School and then Trinity College at the
University of Cambridge, where he studied science
and read widely. After studying law at the Inner
Temple in London, he returned to India in 1912
and practiced law for several years without enthusiasm.
In 1916 he married Kamala Kaul, and in 1917 they
had a daughter, Indira.
In 1919 Nehru joined the Indian
National Congress, a political organization working
for greater autonomy for India, which was then
a British colony. Nehru became devoted to the
organization’s new leader, Mohandas Gandhi.
Gandhi reorganized the Congress in this period
and recruited able lieutenants, among them Nehru.
Nehru brought his father into active cooperation
with Gandhi, and father and son worked together
in the nationalist cause during the 1920s. Nehru
was also active in the Allahâbâd municipal
government. Guided by Gandhi, he gradually learned
about rural India and became an effective speaker
to both Western-educated sophisticates and Indian
peasants. In time, Nehru’s popularity was
second only to Gandhi’s.
During this period he was imprisoned
many times for civil disobedience. His longest
detentions occurred between 1932 and 1935, and
1942 and 1945. While in prison, he wrote his major
books, Toward Freedom (1936), an autobiography;
The Discovery of India (1946); and Glimpses of
World History (1934), a series of letters to his
daughter, Indira. He was a talented and expressive
writer in English, and he and India's freedom
struggle became more widely known through the
extensive circulation of his writings in the West.
By the end of World War II (1939-1945),
Nehru was recognized as Gandhi’s heir apparent
in the Congress. Although he and Gandhi differed
somewhat in their views of the world, they remained
personally and politically close throughout Gandhi's
lifetime. When the British formed an interim Indian
government in 1946 preliminary to full independence,
by Gandhi's choice Nehru became its prime minister.
As head of the interim government,
Nehru participated in negotiations for a united
and federated India that were held in 1946 between
the British rulers, the Congress, and the Muslim
League. The Muslim League was a political organization
working to create a separate Muslim state so that
Hindus, a majority of the population in India,
would not gain control of the entire Indian subcontinent
after independence. Nehru opposed the division
of India on the basis of religion. He adhered
to a secular perspective and believed that all
Indians regardless of religious affiliation should
be equal citizens of the new nation. The parties
were unable to agree on a structure for federation,
but the British government moved to turn over
power to its Indian successors anyway. Lord Louis
Mountbatten, the last viceroy of India, worked
out a procedure for the transfer of power, advocating
the division of British India between India and
Pakistan as the fastest and most workable solution.
Nehru reluctantly agreed to the partition.
Nehru greatly helped in revising
and implementing Mountbatten's plan and became
personally close to Mountbatten and his wife,
Edwina. At Mountbatten's urging, Nehru agreed
to maintain India’s membership in the British-sponsored
Commonwealth of Nations, setting a precedent for
other former British colonies.
Nehru became independent India’s
first prime minister on August 15, 1947, and remained
its leader until his death in 1964. Upon taking
office he moved to implement moderate socialist
economic reforms by means of centralized economic
planning. Nehru personally presided over the government
Planning Commission that drew up successive five-year
plans, beginning in 1951, for the development
of India’s economy. In the decade and a
half after independence, these plans stressed
industrial development and national ownership
of several key areas of the economy. Nehru also
backed plans for community development projects
and the creation of many educational institutions.
Throughout the Nehru years, India’s economy
achieved steady growth and its agricultural production
increased, though not as rapidly as many hoped.
Nehru also encouraged the development of India's
nuclear energy program.
Nehru served as foreign minister
throughout his tenure as prime minister. One of
the first foreign policy challenges he faced was
a conflict with Pakistan over the princely state
of Jammu and Kashmîr in October 1947. At
independence, Kashmîr, bordering on India
and Pakistan, had delayed making a decision to
join either country. When a small group of Kashmîr’s
majority Muslim population demanded accession
to Pakistan, Pakistani troops invaded the area.
Kashmîr’s Hindu ruler, Sir Hari Singh,
then signed an agreement conceding the region
to India. For political and personal reasons,
Nehru believed that it was essential that Kashmîr
remain part of India, and he sent troops into
the region to support India’s claim to it.
The United Nations negotiated a cease-fire agreement
in January 1949, but no definitive solution was
reached on this issue.
As the Cold War developed in
the 1950s, Nehru shaped a foreign policy of "positive
neutrality" for his nation, attempting to
defuse international tensions without joining
either of the international power blocs led by
the United States and the Soviet Union. He became
one of the key spokesmen of the nonaligned nations
of Asia and Africa, mostly former colonies which,
like India, wanted to avoid dependence on any
major power. Under Nehru’s guidance, India
supervised a prisoner exchange at the end of the
Korean War (1950-1953) and helped monitor a truce
between the French and the Vietnamese at the end
of the First Indochina War (1946-1954). At the
Bandung Conference of nonaligned Asian and African
nations in 1955, Nehru championed India-China
friendship and backed the efforts of the People's
Republic of China to gain membership in the United
Nations. Nehru’s government opposed the
British-French invasion of the Suez Canal area
in 1956 (see Suez Crisis), though he spoke much
more softly about Soviet incursions into Eastern
Europe.
India and China, as Asia’s
two most populous nations, tried to achieve cooperation,
and Chinese premier Zhou Enlai visited India in
1954. From the late 1950s, however, relations
between the nations deteriorated over boundary
disputes and over India’s acceptance of
Tibetan refugees, including the Dalai Lama, after
China invaded Tibet in 1950. In 1959 Chinese troops
occupied territory claimed by both China and India.
After diplomatic efforts failed to resolve the
dispute, a short border war broke out in 1962
between Indian and Chinese forces in the Himalayas.
Indian troops were unprepared for the encounter
and were decisively beaten. The Chinese took no
additional territory, but continued to occupy
the land they had annexed in 1959. India’s
crushing defeat stimulated a reevaluation of India’s
defense capabilities, and Nehru was forced to
call for the resignation of Defense Minister V.
K. Krishna Menon, a close personal friend. Despite
his policy of nonalignment, Nehru requested equipment
assistance from the American military during this
crisis, and it was granted through the offices
of Ambassador John Kenneth Galbraith and President
John F. Kennedy.
The Chinese affair had a devastating
personal impact on Nehru, whose health declined
rapidly. He saw the border war as a betrayal by
a nation for whose place in the world he had fought.
In January 1964 Nehru suffered a stroke; he died
in May. Two years later, Nehru’s daughter,
Indira Gandhi, became prime minister of India
and held that position for a total of 15 years
before she was assassinated by Sikh radicals in
1984. Indira’s son and Nehru’s grandson,
Rajiv Gandhi, also served as India’s prime
minister, from 1984 to 1989. He was assassinated
in 1991.
Jawaharlal Nehru was elected
the first prime minister of India in January 1950
after holding the position starting in 1947 as
part of an interim government. He rose to prominence
in the Indian National Congress, playing a major
role in the battle for Indian independence from
Britain. As prime minister, Nehru directed a policy
of positive neutrality (nonalignment with major
powers); he also favored a state-controlled economy
in his attempt to establish an Indian democracy
while improving domestic standards of living.
Nehru served as prime minister until his death
in 1964. |